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Natural Phenomena/Weather

Why did I choose weather/phenomena?

I chose natural phenomena due to specific experiences I've had in video games and real life in which I can only describe the emotionality with 'awe'. For example, within No Man's Sky there are random encounters you can have with extra-terrestrial life that are exceptionally rare and unexpected. Said encounters filled me with a sense of curiosity, awe and happiness that completely outshone every other aspect of the game - it made me feel privileged and excited to know I had the honour of bearing witness to such a thing.

 

From this inspiration, I thought it'd be fitting to investigate phenomena that could evoke those feelings. I'll also look into extreme weather, as well as phenomena related to living beings, not just atmospheric related phenomena.

What do I want to find out?

  • What makes up weather?​

    • How high and low can temperatures get on Earth?​

  • Could we ever control weather?

    • What technology would it take?​

    • How accurately can we predict the weather?​

  • How does life affect the weather?

    • Has life created new forms of weather?​

    • How does weather affect us?

      • Can it change our mood subconsciously? ​

  • What sorts of natural phenomena are there?​

  • What significance do different forms of weather have in different cultures?

    • What weather related gods are there?​

    • What stories/folk tales/myths stem from weather?

    • What sort of weather related creatures are there?

  • Do oceans have weather?

  • What sort of weather do different planets have?

What makes up weather?
  • Weather is made up of six 'main components': 
    • Temperature ​
      • How hot or cold the atmosphere is.​
    • Atmospheric pressure
      • The weight of the atmosphere overhead, changes in pressure signal changes in weather. ​
      • High pressure systems usually bring cool temperatures and clear skies.
      • Low pressure systems usually bring warm temperatures, storms and rain.
    • Wind
      • The movement of air, formed by differences in temperature and atmospheric pressure between neighbouring regions.​
      • Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
    • Humidity
      • The amount of water vapor in the air.​
      • Clouds and precipitation occur when air cools below its saturation point, when warm, humid air cools as it rises. 
      • Humidity is measured as a percentage, where 100% humidity means the air cannot hold any more water.
    • Precipitation
      • All forms in which water falls to Earth from the atmosphere: snow, hail, rain, sleet etc.​
    • Cloudiness
      • Clouds can drastically affect the amount of sunlight any given region receives, causing temperature drops or rises depending on cloudiness. ​
      • Cloudiness can often visually tell us what weather condition is actively occurring. (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/weather) 

 
Could we control the weather?
  • Humans have tried to control the weather for millennia, from rain dances to rockets and lasers.
  • China once successfully caused rain to fall prior to it arriving in Beijing by firing 1100 rockets into the clouds. (https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140504-will-we-ever-control-the-weather)
  • Its possible to use silver iodide to induce rainfall - silver iodide crystals are scattered over clouds by aircraft, where the crystals act like 'seeds', causing water to condense around them, in turn causing them to fall. (https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140504-will-we-ever-control-the-weather)
  • Lasers have been used in an attempt to redirect lightning in a controlled manner. Attempts to do this during actual thunderstorms have failed, but the idea was successful when executed by ENSTA ParisTech when conducted in an artificial environment.
    • Lasers powerful enough can create a low resistance path through the atmosphere, effectively a lightning rod. The lasers that were used could generate terawatts of power for femtoseconds, creating pulses so intense they could strip electrons from air molecules, forming channels of ionised air along the path. ​
    • The initial attempt did find that electrical activity within storm clouds was increased, but could not redirect or trigger lightning. (https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328584-200-lightning-directed-by-laser-beams/#.U0a9LF6ndFw)
  • Lasers have also been used to try and summon clouds. Using the same method, stripping electrons from the air, positive particles could form acting as 'seeds' around which water would condense and for cloud. This has been met with scepticism however, as the method is very unlikely to work in a natural environment. 
  • 'How to stop a hurricane' proposed (alongside lasers) that we could pour liquid nitrogen into the ocean to deprive a hurricane of heat energy, or to use soot to absorb sunlight and change air temperature, creating convection currents in the outer wall. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_modification)
How does life affect the weather?
  • Humans in particular have had a strong adverse affect on the weather through the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, when burned, emit large amounts of particulates and CO2 (carbon dioxide) which, when accumulated in the atmosphere, causes global warming by preventing heat from radiating back into space as easily. This increase in temperature and pollution leads to significant impacts on our lives as well as other animals:
    • More frequent extreme weather conditions​
    • Respiratory issues and potential birth defects
    • Famine through increase in drought/flooding frequency
    • Increased wildfire frequency
    • Animals like mosquitoes and ticks thrive in increasing areas of the world
Have we created new forms of weather?
  • Through the use of things like fossil fuels, human beings specifically have created new weather conditions such as:
    • Acid Rain​
      • Acid rain is a weather condition caused by pollutants mixing in with rain water, this rain is acidic, which obviously has a particularly harmful effect on plants and aquatic animals. It can even damage particular infrastructure. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain)​
    • Smog
      • Smog occurs in locations with a high count of particulates in the air​. These particulates thicken the air, giving it a grey, foggy appearance. This smog can also cause significant respiratory issues, as well as other health problems. (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/smog)
How high and low can temperatures get?
  • The lowest official temperature ever recorded on Earth at ground level was -89.2 C, recorded at the Vostok Station in Antarctica in 1983. 
  • The coldest cities on Earth include Yakutsk, Dikson and Anadyr (Russia) and Gjoa Haven, Iqaluit (Canada). These cities all hit -5 Celsius in average annual temperatures, with winters hitting as low was -38 C, as is the case with Yakutsk. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_average_temperature)

 

 
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How can we predict weather?
  • Doppler Radars:
    • Doppler Radars are a means of observing severe storms. They are made to detect precipitation, rotation of storm clouds, airborne debris and wind strength. ​
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  • Satellites:
    • Satellites are used to visualise weather from space, they collect observational data and send them back to Earth.​
  • Radiosondes:
    • Radiosondes are tied to weather balloons, floating into the upper stratosphere to send back data regarding atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction.​
  • Automated surface-observing systems:
    • ASOS constantly monitor weather conditions on the surface - they monitor sky conditions, surface visibility, precipitation, temperature and wind. ​
  • Supercomputers:
    • The most interesting method of predicting weather is to feed real world data into a simulation to see how it could develop ahead of time - these computers require absurd amounts of processing power. They work in conjunction with other forms of weather monitoring technology to work as accurately as possible. ​
  • AWIPS
Can weather affect our mood?
  • Evidence (albeit not absolutely conclusive) exists to suggest that the weather does affect our mood. A study by A.G. Barnston was conducted that asked 62 people to keep structured diaries of their feelings and productivity for six weeks in Illinois during early autumn. During this period, weather data was also recorded. The findings state that 'weather appears to influence mood and productivity, but only to a small extent compared with all other controlling factors'.
    • Unstable, cloudy, warm and humid conditions seemed to increase stress​
    • Sunny, clear skies seemed to reduce stress
    • Those with psychological issues seemed to be effected more than others
    • Males also showed stronger effects than females
  • The sample size for this study is small and is not particularly diverse, but it is an interesting indicator of how we perceive weather and how it can affect us psychologically. I feel as though a lot of anecdotal evidence would also back these findings up, as strong heat and humidity definitely makes working more difficult and, in turn, increases stress. However, I do feel as though happiness is not always directly linked to productivity levels. So perhaps adding work and productivity into the mix is what increases stress. (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01044907)
What sorts of natural phenomena are there?
For this question specifically, I want to relate it back to the bit where I wrote about my experiences with No Man's Sky and how we feel awe towards things, so I want to focus in on beauty and the surreal.
Bioluminescence and other Biological Phenomena
Bioluminescence is a striking biological process whereby living organisms are able to produce light. Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence, which is simply a chemical reaction in which light is produced. The majority of organisms capable of bioluminescence are marine, but some insects and fungi are also capable of it.

Bioluminescence occurs when two unique chemicals, luciferin (a chemical that produces light when oxidised) and liciferase (an enzyme used in catalysing luciferin in) bioluminescence or photoprotein (a protein that interacts with luciferin) react with eachother. The result is a form of nearly heatless light. The colour emitted is dependent on the arrangement of the luciferin molecules. Below are some incredible sights you can see related to bioluminscence. (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/bioluminescence)
Glowing Shores
  • This surreal sight is caused by bioluminescent plankton, who form beautiful light patterns along the shore when they wash up. They can be found along the coasts of the Maldives, Thailand, Vietnam, Australia, San Diego and Jamaica. 
  • The plankton involved in this emit light when agitated, as a defence mechanism. They are dinoflagellates, which are organisms that produce luciferin on their own. 
Glowing Fungi
  • It is currently unclear as to why certain fungi use bioluminescence, but experiements are being carried out in an attempt to discover the relationships between fungi and insects to see if there is a connection. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tOM6QJCK8Lg)
  • They can be found in temperate and tropical regions in Europe, North/South America, Southeast Asia, Japan and Australia. 
Firefly Mating Rituals
Firefly Squid
  • This sight is caused by millions of fireflies who use their glowing tails to attract mates. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7VZlaHWR1s)
  • Fireflies are found on every continent in temperate and tropical regions, and are most commonly seen on summer evenings. 
Kitefin Sharks
  • Kitefin sharks are currently the largest vertebrates capable of bioluminescence. They inhabit the deep sea around New Zealand. Sharks are the only known bioluminescent organisms to hormonally control light emission. Melatonin triggers light emission, and 'alpha-melanocyte-stimulating' and andrenocorticotropic hormones inhibit it. Prolactin triggers brighter and faster emission than melatonin. 
  • Why Kitefin's have this ability is unknown, since they have no natural predators in their territory, and swim at a very slow speed compared to other shark species. It is theorised it uses it to illuminate the sea floor, or to use as counterillumination camouflage, a technique whereby animals try to match the wavelength of their surroundings. (https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.633582/full)
  • Firefly squid have evolved to emit blue light, since it has an easier time penetrating the dark waters where they live. It isn't certain why they evolved to be bioluminescent, but it is theorised that they may use it to communicate, camouflage or luring prey. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly_squid#Bioluminescence_and_Vision)
  • Firefly squid are native to the shores of Japan, and their spawning seasons are a large tourist attraction as well as fishing opportunity. 
Glowworm Cave
  • Waitomo Glowworm caves in New Zealand are home to a species of glowworm that create stunning light displays on the cave ceilings. Arachnocampa luminosa is a species of fungus gnat that are capable of bioluminescence in their larval and imago stages.
  • The glowworms stick to the ceilings of the cave and, in their larval phase, produce a silk 'snare' along which they place multiple sticky droplets that ensnare prey.
    • The snares, in conjunction with their striking blue light, create an otherworldly sight. ​The sticky droplets become illuminated by the light too.
Rainbow Eucalyptus
Atmospheric or Cloud-based Phenomena
Halos
Sundogs
  • Rainbow eucalyptus is a type of tree where each new layer of the trunk is a neon green colour. As the bark of the tree sheds, this green is revealed. As these areas become exposed to air, they transition into new colours. The rainbow effect is caused by different areas having been exposed to air for different periods of time. (https://www.oneearth.org/species-of-the-week-rainbow-eucalyptus/)
Migration
  • Many animals across the planet migrate across the world to different locations. Animals typically migrate on a seasonal basis for reasons such as mating, climate, or food. 
    • Red crab migrations on Christmas Island migrate for mating purposes, and make for a surreal sight.​
    • Monarch butterflies also create a surreal sight during their migrations.
Light Pillars
Belt of Venus
  • The 'Belt of Venus' is a phenomena in which the atmosphere opposite the sun appears as a light shade of orange and pink. The pink shades are sunlight shining through denser atmosphere near the Earth's western horizon, and reflecting off of atmosphere on the opposite side of the observer - a phenomena called backscattering. 
    • As the Earth rotates, sunlight ceases to reach parts of the atmosphere near the horizon opposite the sun, casting a shadow on the atmosphere.​
    • As the shadow rises, the pink band created before now begins to separate from the horizon, creating a dramatic arch, the Belt of Venus. (https://www.phenomena.org/atmospheric/beltofvenus/)
Cloud Iridescence
  • Cloud iridescence is a phenomenon that occurs in the general proximity of the sun or moon, and is caused when ice crystals and water droplets scatter light. Larger ice crystals will not cause iridescence, but will instead cause halos. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_iridescence)
  • The phenomenon is also known as irisation, which was inspired by the Greek goddess Iris, who is the goddess of rainbows and messenger to Zeus and Hera. 
Lenticular Clouds
  • Lenticular clouds are stationary, saucer like clouds. That occur in the lower stratosphere. They are formed when stable, moist air flows over a mountain, creating a series of oscillating waves. 
Aurora Borealis (The Northern Lights)
  • The aurora borealis is a beautiful light display created by the interaction between solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field. 
    • Charged particles from the sun hit our atmosphere at incredibly high speeds, but are redirected towards the magnetic poles and nullified by the Earth's magnetic field. The aurora is created when the particles collide with the ionosphere, which causes it to fluoresce. ​
    • Different molecules or atoms emit unique colours when they fluoresce. Red hues produced by nitrogen molecules and green hues produced by oxygen molecules are most commonly seen. (https://www.space.com/15139-northern-lights-auroras-earth-facts-sdcmp.html)
Green Flashes
  • Green flashes appear at the very top of the sunrise just before it reaches the horizon line. They can rarely be accompanied by a green ray shooting up from the top of the sun.
    • Refraction of light through increasingly density of molecules creates a sort of prismatic effect, spreading wavelengths out. During green flashes, the spectrum is refracted in a way that gives off flashes of green above the sun.​
    • Due to the rarity of the event, observing green flashes is said to bring good luck.
    • The phenomena can be observed through any bright enough celestial objects, including Venus or Jupiter. (https://www.phenomena.org/atmospheric/greenflash/)
Morning Glory Cloud
  • Morning glory clouds are a rare phenomenon in which a massive 'tube' of cloud stretches across the land. They can often appear as a series of amplitude ordered waves forming bands of clouds. 
Monochrome Rainbow
  • Monochrome or red rainbows are a phenomena in which a rainbow appears in an incredible red colour. 
  • They form when the sun is close to the horizon, whereby the low angle results in a longer distance for its light to travel, causing shorter wavelengths to scatter, leaving red behind. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrome_rainbow)
Geological phenomena
Crystals and metals
  • Cubic crystals are one of my personal favourite geological phenomena, the shapes these crystals arrange themselves into give off a futuristic yet magical vibe. The above mineral is fluorite, which can appear in cubic shapes.
  • Bismuth is an element that can be formed into beautiful, multicoloured crystalline structures that connote magic. Their structures form in lots of straight lines, forming incredible futuristic geometric shapes that almost look like a cityscape or machine. These shapes aren't really seen naturally, and instead occur when the metal is heated and cooled. 
Rainbow Mountains, China
  • The Rainbow Mountains of Zhanye Danxia park are huge mineral formations that showcase a beautiful array of vivid colours. It is composed of cretaceous sandstones and siltstones that were deposited before the Himalayas were formed. The sand and silt deposits had different traces of mineral content, giving them unique colours. 
Dallol Hydrothermal System (Ethiopia)
  • Located in the Danakil Depression, the Dallol hydrothermal system is an otherwordly place that is inhospitable to life. It is made up of many small, temporary geysers, hot and acidic springs, and mounds of salt that spit water and sulfurous gases. It is surrounded by barren salt plain. (https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/dallol-as-mars-analog-tourism)
Knife Forest, Madagascar
  • Opal is a hydrated amorphous form of silica that is a type of photonic crystal. Photonic crystals are optical nanostructures that causes the refractive index to change periodically, resulting in their unique colours and effects. (https://www.geologypage.com/2015/08/what-is-opal.html)
    • Opal can come in a variety of colours, from black (black opal), to predominantly red/orange (fire opal) to, blue/green (Peruvian opal).  ​
  • The 'Knife Forest' in Tsingy De Bemaraha National Park, Madagascar, is a karstic plateau (a topology made up of soluble rocks such as limstone and gypsum) in which groundwater has undercut and gouged caverns and fissures into. The superposition of horizontal and vertical erosion patterns created the sharp 'knife' formations that make up the Knife Forest. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsingy_de_Bemaraha_National_Park)
Kawah Ijen, Java, Indonesia
  • The 'blue volcano' in Java is a unique volcano in which the lava burns blue. The blue colouration is caused by high contents of sulphur reacting with oxygen in the atmosphere. 
Astronomical Phenomena
Shooting Stars and Meteor Showers
  • Shooting stars are simply pieces of space or manmade debris that are pulled towards Earth, where they burn up in our atmosphere. They happen all the time, but are often unseen, especially during the day. During the night however, their shine is much easier to spot. (https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/meteor-shower-guide)
    • A common tradition across the globe is to make a wish upon seeing one. You cannot tell anyone your wish however, as this will prevent it from coming true. ​
    • Meteor showers are events where the frequency of shooting stars increases due to the position of Earth around the sun. 
      • The Quadrantid shower occurs around the 28 Dec - 12 Jan​
        • ​Characterised by bluish-yellow meteors with fine trains.​​
      • The Lyrid shower occurs around 14-30 April
        • Characterised by bright, fast meteors, some with trains.​
      • The Eta Aquariids shower occurs around 19 Apr - 28 May
        • Characterised by low flying meteors.​
      • The Delta Aquariids shower occurs around 12 July - 23 Aug
        • Characterised by steady stream of meteors but low rate per hour.​
      • The Alpha Capricornids occurs around 3 July - 15 Aug
        • Characterised by yellow, slow fireballs.​
      • The Perseid shower occurs around 17 July - 24 Aug
        • Characterised by many bright, fast meteors with trains.​
      • The Draconid shower occurs around 6-10 October​​
      • The Orionid shower occurs around 2 Oct - 7 Nov
        • Characterised by fast meteors with fine trains.​
      • The Taurid shower occurs around 10 Sep - 20 Nov in the Southern hemisphere, and 20 Oct-10 Dec in the Northern hemisphere
        • Characterised by very slow meteors.​
      • The Leonid shower occurs around 6-30 November
        • Characterised by fast bright meteors with trains. ​
      • The Geminid shower occurs around 4-20 December
        • Characterised by many bright meteors with few trains.​
      • The Ursid shower occurs 17-26 December
        • Characterised by a sparse shower. ​
Solar Eclipse
  • Solar eclipses are a surreal phenomena in which the moon overlaps with the sun, blocking its light. 
    • Total solar eclipses are an event we are very fortunate to be able to witness, as the Sun just so happens to be 400 times bigger than the moon, and the moon happens to be 400 times closer to the Earth, allowing the moon to nigh-perfectly cover the sun on rare occasions. 
    • Partial solar eclipses are much more common than total solar eclipses, but are still just as incredible to witness. (https://www.space.com/15584-solar-eclipses.html)
Lunar Eclipse
  • Lunar eclipses occur when the moon moves into the Earth's shadow. This can only occur when the Sun, Earth and moon are in syzygy, with the Earth in the middle. 
    • A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the Earth's penumbra, causing a subtle dimming of the moon's surface.​
    • Partial lunar eclipses occur when the moon enters the Earth's umbra.
    • Total lunar eclipses occur when the moon falls entirely within the Earth' umbra. They cause the moon to appear red, which is caused by sunlight refracted by Earth being reflected back by the moon. 
    • A selenelion is an event where a lunar eclipse occurs when both the sun AND moon are visible. 
Novae
  • Novae are celestial events involving stars, there are two main variations:
    • Novae - Novae are events where stars will 'reignite' themselves, causing a temporary increase in brightness.​
    • Supernovae - Supernovae are violent events where the reignition of a star causes an explosion. Only stars of a mass over the Chandrasekhar limit can go supernova. Supernovae are caused when the gravitational force overcomes hydrostatic pressure, causing a collapse that causes one final round of nuclear fusion to occur and the outer layers of the star to explode outwards violently.
      • ​This 'final round' of fusion is where some heavier/rarer elements can be formed. ​
      • The core of the star is left behind, leaving either a neutron star or a black hole. Black holes only form when a star's mass is over the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit. 
    • Hypernovae are just like supernovae, but on a much larger scale (>30 solar masses) (https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/supernova/en/) (https://www.space.com/chandrasekhar-limit) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova)
How do different cultures see different weather and phenomena?
There are wild differentiations between cultures in regards to many things, so I want to look into how different cultures (modern and ancient) view the weather. I know there are plenty of gods and myths related to the weather, and I know just how much us Brits love to complain about it, so there is a lot of potential here!

In terms of deities, I'm going to selective like I was with Norse mythology, since there are A LOT of weather-related deities across the world. I'm going to look into the ones that stick out to me personally. I was initially going to look into them by category (rain, sun, wind, thunder etc) however, specifically with rain deities, there is a lot of overlap. A lot of rain deities happen to be thunder or storm deities too. 
How do different cultures view rain?
How do different cultures view sunshine?
  • Rain is seen very differently across the world. Generally speaking, the Western world sees rain negatively, whereas rain is met with joy and happiness in drier countries such as India, Africa and the Middle East, for obvious reasons. 
    • Many places feel the smell of rain is quite pleasant. The smell is caused by an oil produced by plants called petrichor which is released into the air during rainfall. The smell is strengthened the more plants there are in a given area. ​
  • The UK sees rain as a depressive occurrence generally since the countries see a fair amount of rainfall annually. 
  • Rain is directly associated with agriculture, since water is necessary for plant growth. 
  • Rain dances are a form of ritual done in many different cultures as a means of summoning rain. 
    • The Native-American Zuni people used rain dances. They worse feathers and turquoise to symbolise the wind and rain specifically. They would sometimes do rain dances in exchange for goods as a form of mutual benefit. ​​​
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  • In Africa, rain is a necessity for sustenance. The power to make rain is typically attributed to a monarch. Monarchs who could not summon the rain would run the risk of being killed by their people for failing them. ​​
  • Wu Shamans in ancient China performed sacrificial ran dances in times of drought. Wu were thought to be the intermediaries between humans and nature spirits, who could control rainfall. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainmaking_(ritual))
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  • Roman religion used a ceremony named aquaelicium, which sought to end droughts. Pontifices would use a sacred stone called the lapis manalis (water-flowing stone). The stone would be brought to into the Senate, where water would be poured over it as an offering to Jupiter for rain in return. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainmaking_(ritual))
  • In Christianity, rain can be seen as a form of God's wrath. The story of Noah's Ark revolved around God summoning a 40 day storm in anger.
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  • The sun seems to carry holy and spiritual significance all across the globe, and has had a monumental impact in the way we live our lives.
  • The Sun is a fundamental component in how we measure time. Our days are based around how the day-night cycle, and our years are based around how Earth orbits the sun.
  • The Sun is also fundamental in giving us the warmth and light we need to even exist in the first place, so its very existence is directly tied to happiness, generosity and prosperity.
  • Many religions considered the Sun to be a gift from the gods, if not a god itself. ​​
  • Dry countries may have negative associations with the sun, since it's ceaseless heat is what causes droughts.
  • Sun dances sought to bring sunshine to regions.
    • Sun dances aren't as common in culture as rain dances are, and are only really a part of Native American culture, specifically the plains Indians. ​
    • They would be conducted after the long plains winters as a plea to bring sunshine to the land. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sun-Dance)
How do different cultures view lightning?
What weather related gods are there?
Oya
  • Oya is an orisha (spirits of the Yoruba religion) of wings, lightning and storms, death, and rebirth. 
  • Her name is morphologically coined from 'O ya', which means 'she tore' in Yoruba. 
  • Oya is depicted in artwork with a flowing dress, that is usually multicoloured or red, and bears. Wine-red makes a lot of appearances too, as it was supposedly her favourite colour. 
  • She is sometimes depicted wearing a turban that is made to look like the horns of a buffalo, since, in some myths, she married Ogun who took the form of a buffalo.
  • Depictions of Oya also include a sword or machete, masks, or a horsetail fly whisk.
  • She was also known as a brave and unbeatable warrior. (https://symbolsage.com/oya-goddess-of-weather/) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cya)
Indra
  • Indra is the king of devas and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, rivers, and war. 
  • He is a heroic deity, but one that also struggles with his own pride - he often gets drunk and engages in a lot of scandalous, sexual acts. 
  • He is often depicted riding his elephant, Airavata, and is depicted baring either gold, red, or pink skin. He wears golden jewellery, and is often seen wearing cloaks from either his shoulders or his elbows. He has 4 arms, and can often be seen holding the Vajra, or thunderbolt. 
    • His thunderbolt is called Bhaudhara. ​
Kuraokami/Okami
  • Kuraokami (in the Kojiki) or Okami (in the Nihon Shuki) is a legendary Japanese dragon and a deity of rain, storms, winter and good fortune. 
  • Kuraokami was created when Izanagi killed his own son, whose blood or body then created many deities. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuraokami)
Zeus
  • Zeus is the king of the Greek pantheon of gods at Mount Olympus - he is god of sky and lightning. 
  • He is often depicted as a figure connoting significant holiness and power, bearing brown curly hair and a thick, full beard. He is muscular and is often seen with robes, holding his signature thunderbolt in hand.
  • He was known for his erotic escapades, and is the father of many deities including Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, the Muses, Ares, Eilethiyia, Hebe, Hephaestus, Athena, and Aphrodite. 
  • Zeus lead the gods in the war with the Titans, where he eventually lead them to victory. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus)
Wollunqua
  • Wollunqua is a snake-god of rain and fertility in Australian Aboriginal mythology of the Warramunga people. 
  • It is said to have appeared from a watering hole called Kadjinara, and is said to be many miles long. 
    • It is often referred to as urkulu nappaurinnia, as it is thought that using its real name too often would cause it to lose control and destroy humanity. ​
  • Wollunqua is considered to be the father of all snakes. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollunqua)
Ra
  • Ra is the supreme sun god and is the first Egyptian god. 
  • It is said that he was moved to tears by the beauty of the world around him, and that said tears grow into human beings. 
  • He once became furious with humanity, summoning his divine eye, Hathor, and turned her into Sekhmet, a savage lioness. Sekhmet was sent to kill all of humanity, but was stopped as an act of mercy by Ra. ​(Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 873)
  • Ra is commonly depicted very similarly to Horus, as a humanoid with the head of a falcon. The primary different is that Ra wears a large solar disk on his head, which is encircled by a cobra. 
Nanahuatzin/Nanahuatl
  • Nanahuatzin was the most humble of the gods. At the beginning of the world, darkness covered the Earth. The gods gathered together and created a fire; Nanahuatzin sacrificed himself in this fire so that light would shine down upon the Earth. In doing so, he became the Sun and consequently the Sun god. ​(Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 153) 
Malakbel
  • Malakbel was a sun god worshipped in the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra. He was frequently associated and worshipped with Aglibol (moon god) and as part of a trinity involving the sky god Baalshamin.
  • He is often depicted as in stone reliefs, in which he is given a halo with sun rays radiating out of it. He is often depicted wearing robes and or a type of tunic that seems to be armour, he bears a sheathed sword too. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malakbel)
Xihe
  • Xihe was a Chinese goddess of the sun. She had ten sons, who were a flock of three-legged crows who lived in a mulberry tree at the edge of the East Sea known as the Fusang.
  • ​Xihe possessed a carriage that she would use to pull the sun across the sky; it was pulled by a team of dragons. ​
    • Every morning, Xihe would choose one of her sons to ride with her. ​
  • She is often depicted with her ten suns, as well as her carriage. (https://mythologysource.com/xihe-chinese-goddess/)
Jack Frost
  • Jack Frost is a personification of frost, ice and winter.
  • He is said to leave the frosty patterns we see on our windows on cold winter mornings.
  • He is typically depicted as a fairy like being with a mischievous expression. Older depictions show him as an older man with a long, scrunched up face, almost like a witch. More modern depictions show him as a younger man with a more 'regular' face.
  • He is sometimes described as using a brush to paint autumnal foliage red, yellow, brown and orange. 
  • Jack Frost may originate from Anglo-Saxon and Norse winter customs. He has an entire chapter named after him in the Kalevala, a Finnish national epic. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Frost)
Yarilo
Tlaloc
  • Tlaloc is the supreme god of rain within Aztec religion. He is also worshipped as a god of fertility and water.
  • He was feared for his ability to control hail and lightning, as these would be his tools for exacting his wrath.
  • He is usually depicted with large goggle-eyes and fangs. He wears a distinctive-mask and a heron feather headdress. He is seen carrying a cornstalk or a lightning bolt wand, and would occasionally be depicted with a ritual water jar.
  • Jaguars were often sacrificed to him due to their high sacrificial value. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tl%C4%81loc)
Cocijo
  • Cocijo is a rain and lightning deity of the Zapotec civilisation. He was one of the most important figures within their culture due to his association with rainfall.
    • It is said his role went much deeper than just this, as some myths suggest he could have been the creator of the world, creating he sun, moon, stars, seasons, lands, mountains, river, plants, animals and the day/night cycle. He supposedly created everything with his exhales. ​
  • Many statues of Cocijo exist, depicting him with a wide zoomorphic face with a serpentine tongue and a blunt snout. He wears a large headdress that bears the Zapotec glyph C, which is the day sign for water. 
  • He is often posed sat down with crossed legs and his hands on either his knees or feet. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocijo)
Raijin and Fujin
  • Raijin and Fujin are Shinto gods of storms and wind respectively. 
  • The pair are often depicted together, as they are brothers who often bicker and fight eachother. They appear as muscular, demonic entities. 
  • Raijin is depicted with an aggressive expression, yielding hammers that he uses in conjunction with Taiko drums to create the sound of thunder. His skin is a striking red colour. 
  • Raijin is sometimes depicted with his totem animal, Raiju, a thunder-beast with dog and wolf like features.
  • Fujin is depicted similarly to Raijin in nature, wearing an aggressive expression. Fujin bares a red head, with green skin and wears leopard skin. 
  • Fujin wears a bag of wind around his shoulders. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raijin) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C5%ABjin)
Lono
  • Lono is a Hawaiian god that associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. 
  • In his honour, the Hawaiian festival Makahiki is held.
    • He is said to have created the Makahiki festival in memory of his wife, whom he killed after believing she had been unfaithful. ​
  • Lono is said to have fished up the sun and moon from the seas, where he then set them into orbit. 
  • He supplied the fertile soils necessary to create humans. 
  • It is believed that rain is Lono's tears as he mourns the loss of his wife. (https://mythus.fandom.com/wiki/Lono)
  • His appearance is hard to ping down, but most depictions of him come in the form of carved wooden figures. He typically features a strangely shaped face with a large mouth, usually in an angry expression. His stature seems to be short but stocky, and he wears a tall headdress in most depictions. He is also depicted with a tail-like protrusion folding over his head, featuring many spikes pointing skyward. (https://www.surfertoday.com/surfing/the-four-major-hawaiian-gods)
Horus
  • Horus is one of the most significant gods in Egyptian mythology, representing kingship and the sky. 
    • He has power over the weather, including rain, thunder, storms, and has associations with the Sun.​
  • He is depicted as a humanoid with a falcon head, or as a falcon outright. 
    • It was thought that the current Pharaoh was a manifestation of Horus in life, and Osiris in death.​
  • He is typically depicted wearing the pschent, a red and white crown, as a symbol of kingship over Egypt. 
  • His right eye was thought to be the Sun, and his left eye the Moon. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horus)
  • One tale speaks of how Horus was once blinded by Set in his left eye but and, after Thoth healed it, it became known as a powerful magical symbol of protection known as 'The Eye of Horus'.
    • Since his left eye was the moon, the injury was used to explain moon phases. ​(Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 546)
Kinich Ahau
  • Kinich Ahau is the Mayan sun god.
  • He is depicted as a middle-aged man with an aquiline nose, large square eyes, cross-eyed, and a filed incisor. He is usually depicted with the sun in his eyes. 
  • It is said that he is associated with an aquatid eastern paradise, where he can assume the shape of a chimerical water bird, or shown as a young man paddling a canoe. (Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 677) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinich_Ahau) 
Surya
  • Surya is the Hindu god the of the sun. He rides along the sky each day in a chariot pulled by seven horses.
    • At morning, Surya takes the form of Brahma, the creator, at midday, he takes the form of Vishnu, the preserver, and in the evening, he takes the form of Shiva, the destroyer. ​
  • His horses are said to represent the seven chakras. 
  • He is often depicted as a golden figure riding his chariot across the sky. He is sometimes shown holding lotus flowers, and typically has four arms.  (Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 973)
Amaterasu
  • Amaterasu is the Shinto goddess of the sun, and is one of the major kami. In fact, she was widely considered to be the most important god of all. 
  • A tale speaks of how Amaterasu would retreat into a cave, and would return and bring light back to Earth. This tale represents the agricultural seasons, and how crops cannot grow without the warm light of the sun. 
  • Amaterasu is almost always depicted as a gentle, compassionate goddess shining golden light upon the world. She is typically depicted wearing white and red, with gold jewellery and black hair.  (Encyclopedia of World Mythology, p 51)
The Anemoi
  • The Anemoi are the four gods of wind in Greek mythos. Each one corresponds to one of the four cardinal directions of wind (North, South, East, West).
    • Boreas represented the North Wind who was often depicted as an old bearded man with wings, yielding a conch shell. He was associated with winter, as he would bring cold winds.​
    • Notus represented the South Wind and was associated with hot, summer winds. His winds would cause the crops to burn, and would bring bad weather. 
    • Zephyrus represented the West Wind and was considered the gentlest wind of the four and thus most associated with spring. It is said his winds helped crops bloom. 
    • Eurus represented the East Wind, and was associated with autumnal showers and storms. (https://www.greekmythology.com/Other_Gods/Anemoi/anemoi.html)
  • Yarilo is the god of springtime, fertility, sexuality and peace within Slavic mythology.​​
  • Yarilo represented the cyclical nature of life, and was believed to have been killed and reborn every year. 
    • He is strongly associated with the seasonality of wheat and how important it was in Slavic culture.​
    • Every spring, Jarilo was said to emerge from the underworld, bringing fertility and spring with him.
  • Depictions of Yarillo show him as gentle and calm, wearing a ring of flowers atop his head. He is almost always depicted in white, with accents of red.
What weather related folklore is there?
'Red sky at night, shepherds delight. Red sky in the morning, shepherds warning'
'Halo around the sun or moon, rain or snow soon'
'Clear moon, frost soon'
'If the moon's face is red, of water she speaks'
What weather related festivals/rituals are there?
Aztec Rain Festival
Peruvian Sun Festival
  • The Aztec rain festival is celebrated three times a year, and is held in honour of the rain and lightning god, Tlaloc. 
    • The first is called Atlcahualo (the ceasing of water) and is celebrated at the beginning of the agricultural year in February. Human sacrifice was an integral part of the festival; children would be taken to the mountaintops to be sacrificed to Tlaloc by having their hearts removed. Their tears were believed to bring the rain.​
    • The second is called Tozoztontli (small perforation) and is held in March. Child sacrifice would occur here too, but would happen in caves. Flayed skin would be worn by priests.
    • The third is called Atemoztli (descent of water) and is celebrated in December. Statues would be made of Tlaloc out of amaranth dough, and would be worshipped. The statues would have open chests as to mirror sacrifice. The figures would then be eaten as part of a banquet. (https://owlcation.com/humanities/Ancient-Aztec-Festivals-Celebrations-and-Holidays#:~:text=The%20Aztecs%20celebrated%20the%20first,to%20be%20sacrificed%20to%20Tlaloc.)
  • Inti Raymi (the Peruvian sun festival) is celebrated each year on the 24th of June. The Inca people created this festival in honour of the Sun God Inti, which drew thousands to the ancient Inca capital, Cusco. 
    • Ancestral mummies would be brought to the festival from temples and shrines. ​
    • Hundreds of llamas would be sacrificed during the festival.
    • Chicha (Inca beer) would be drank in abundance, and attendees would turn drunk to celebrate. (https://www.theonlyperuguide.com/festival-sun-inti-raymi/)
Midsummer (Sweden)
  • Midsummer is also known as the Summer solstice, and is the longest day of the year. In agrarian times, Swedes celebrated Midsummer to welcome summertime and the season of fertility.
  • Midsummer is celebrated in the countryside for obvious reasons; cities become barren temporarily. 
    • A traditional midsommerstang (a type of maypole) would be created, which is typically decorated with green garlands and flowers, which people would dance around.​
    • People would enjoy a large lunch, with staples such as gravelax, new potatoes, and sill. Alcohol is plentiful during the celebrations too. 
    • In the evening, there is a traditional event in which you collect seven different flowers to put under your pillow. Doing so was said to make you dream about your true love. (https://theculturetrip.com/europe/sweden/articles/a-brief-history-of-swedens-midsummer-festival/)
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